Grammar - word classes

Adjectives Traditionally known as describing words, they provide extra information about nouns by giving details of physical qualities like colour and shape, and of psychological qualities like emotions; and by providing evaluative judgements e.g. ‘a funny film’, ‘the floppyhat’, ‘a heavy sack’, ‘an excellent story’. See modifiers and superlatives.

Adverbs are modifying words. They can modify the meaning of verbs, adjectives or other adverbs (e.g. gently, very, fortunately).  Adverbs and adverbial phrases can be used to indicate when (time), where (place), how (manner) or how often (frequency) e.g. ‘At 8 o’clock…’ ‘In the park…’ ‘She ran quickly’ ‘I always visit her’.  See modifiers.

Dynamic verbs Express a wide range of actions which are usually physical e.g. jump, run, stare, dance.  They can add energy and excitement to a text and imply that the author is more interested in action than in contemplation.

Infinitives The infinitive of a verb is the ‘root’ of the verb (i.e. without any endings for tense or person).  It usually includes ‘to’ (e.g. to run, to laugh). Infinitives can create a formal tone when used in writing and so they are useful in writing to argue, persuade or advise.

Intransitive Verb A verb that cannot take an object e,g. Mary fell (the verb to fall cannot take an object). Other intransitive verbs are to cough, to hesitate, etc.

Modal Verbs (auxiliaries) Modal verbs are used to help the main verb; another verb is always needed. The modal verbs are: can, will, shall, may, could, would, should, might, must, ought to. Modal verbs can alter the tone of writing and can be used for a variety of effects e.g. to indicate doubt, obligation, certainty, possibility, politeness, advice…

ModifiersThese are words that describe the head word or give more information about it. If they come before the head word they are pre-modifiers: ‘The scruffy dog’ and if they come after the head word they are called post-modifiers: ‘The dog across the street...’.Modifiers enrich description and may create a certain atmosphere. They may provide physical, psychological, emotive or visual detail.  They can influence the reader using positive and negative connotations which direct the reader to respond in chosen ways.  Modifiers are crucial in helping the reader to make decisions about events, characters and places; and in adding depth to any underlying message.

Nouns (Concrete and Abstract) Concrete nouns refer to things that exist physically and abstract nouns refer to ideas, feelings and qualities e.g. justice, friendship, democracy. If writing has a large number of concrete nouns, readers are usually able to imagine the physical reality of what is being described – the writing refers to solid, tangible objects. The reality described in writing with a large number of abstract nouns is less definite. The writing is more likely to be about ideas, concepts, qualities, feelings – making more demands upon the reader’s intellect and imagination.

Pronouns Pronouns replace nouns: she gave it to him. First person plural pronouns such as ‘us’ and ‘we’ give texts an inclusive feel. They help to establish a shared sense of identity. Third person pronouns ‘she’ ‘he’ ‘it’ may distance the reader from the character or create ambiguity. Lack of personal name may create anonymity or detachment or create a sense of mystery and unease.

Proper Noun Refer to specific people and places - usually begin with a capital letter. Proper nouns can add realism and a sense of authenticity to a text.

Stative Verbs Express states of being or processes in which there is no obvious action; they are not often used as commands and do not usually occur after the verb to be with an –ing ending: to know, to believe, to remember, to realise, to suppose, to appear. The use of stative verbs suggests that the author’s interest lies in description, whether it be of setting or states of mind.

Superlatives Words which express the best or worst of something. They often end in ‘est’ or have ‘most’ or ‘least’ before them, e.g. ‘highest’, ‘happiest’, ‘most beautiful’. Used to emphasise the extremes. Often found in advertisements for their persuasive effect.

Transitive Verb A verb that must take an object. E.g. Mary makes…tea (the listener needs to know what Mary makes).  Other transitive verbs are to have, to afford, etc.

Verbs See dynamic verbs and stative verbs.

Grammar - sentence types

Minor: not grammatically complete: lacks one or more clause elements, e.g. Thanks, Great party! Similar effects as short simple sentences – they can intensify the phrase (i.e. place a focus on nouns in verbless sentences).
Simple: contains only one clause. Short simple sentences can be used to simplify, build tension and suspense, add clarity and precision, intensify and add drama.
Compound: consists of two or more simple sentences linked with a co-ordinating conjunction (and, but, or).  Each clause in a compound sentence makes sense on its own and each is of equal importance.
Complex: consists of one main clause and one or more other clauses which are of lesser importance than the main clause.  These lesser clauses are called subordinate clauses. A text with a number of subordinate clauses will require more attention from the reader (through increased difficultly of reading). This can often make it more serious, informative and detailed.

 

Grammar - sentence moods

Exclamations (Exclamatory Mood) A sentence that ends with an exclamation mark. This may help express anger, shock, horror, surprise and joy, e.g. ‘I won!’ - used to portray emotions in writing.

Declaratives (Declarative Mood) Makes declarations or statements. Can be used to related facts or opinions. They are the dominant sentence mood in English.

Imperatives (commands) Give instruction, advice or warning and tend to begin with a verb.They are often used in writing to advise. They can add force to a text and could reflect on the authority of the writer.

Questions (interrogatives) Show that the writer wants the reader to consider the question, or that they themselves are considering the question asked. Interrogatives engage the reader and require them to pause and think about a response. Questions can also be used to show a range of things about a character such as inquisitiveness, upset and confusion.

 

Grammar - syntax

Asyndetic listing Listing which does not involve the use of conjunctions e.g. ‘On her return she received medals, honours, treasures, titles, fame’. Can help to convey a sense of urgency or emphasise a particular point by creating a cumulative effect. A list can convey confusion and chaos or logic and reason, depending on context. Equally, a writer can build towards a climax or defy expectations by concluding in an anti-climax.

Ellipsis The omission of a part of a sentence that can be understood from the context.  Ellipsis can create suspense or avoid unnecessary repetition.

Foregrounding A change in the structure of a sentence to place emphasis on an opening sentence element. The reader’s attention is drawn to the foregrounded word/phrase, often dramatising it or stressing its importance.

Parallelism Occurs when phrases or sentences have a similar pattern or structure e.g. ‘Autoglass repair, Autoglass replace’. Used to create a sense of balance – a rhythmic device used for rhetoric purposes to make a point memorable.

Syndetic Listing A list linked by conjunctions: ‘I went to the shops and bought applesand pears and bread and milk and honey…’. Can help to convey the abundance of items or emphasise a particular point by creating a cumulative effect. A list can convey confusion and chaos or logic and reason, depending on context. Equally, a writer can build towards a climax or defy expectations by concluding in an anti-climax.